t2 phage genome size

volume18,pages 125138 (2020)Cite this article. USA 113, 201601060 (2016).This study identifies 44 phage groups in the gut microbiota, nine of which are shared across more than one-half of individuals and are proposed to be part of a healthy gut phageome. Microbiol. Russel, M. & Model, P. A mutation downstream from the signal peptidase cleavage site affects cleavage but not membrane insertion of phage coat protein. Viruses in the fecal microbiota of monozygotic twins and their mothers. WebLength of the filamentous phage is determined by size of the DNA in the genome Inserts of up 42 Kb have been introduced into M13 genome and packaged (7x genome size) ~8 copies of the Gene III protein are attached at the end of the extruded genome Cell 160, 447460 (2015). Viral and microbial community dynamics in four aquatic environments. Res. Abrescia, N. G. et al. The T2 39 gene, along with the 52 gene, encode the smallest topo II. We predict that many more phage genes participate in these dances for survival, but that answers to these questions will await further dissection of bacteriophages genomes and their biology. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Rohwer, F. & Edwards, R. The phage proteomic tree: a genome-based taxonomy for phage. Biol. [Genome size is the total length of DNA in an organism. WebEnterobacteria Phage T2 As the T2 bacteriophage consists of only two components, they selectively labelled the DNA with radioactive 32P, and (in a separate batch) the proteins with 35S. Khayat, R. et al. Nature 437, 356361 (2005). Dysbiosis in inflammatory bowel disease: a role for bacteriophages? Bolduc, B. et al. ISME J. Olia, A. S., Prevelige Jr., P. E., Johnson, J. E. & Cingolani, G. Three-dimensional structure of a viral genome-delivery portal vertex. Microbiol. Nature 505, 432435 (2014). Shkoporov, A. N. et al. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Creasy, A., Rosario, K., Leigh, B. Microbiol. The host range of the recombinant phages was identical to that of IP008. of multiple head-to-tail copies of the genome. Furthermore, the recombinant phage bacterial lytic Martinez-Hernandez, F. et al. Comparison of genome size of T2 phage, Escherichia coli, Drosophila melanogaster, Homo sapiens and, Genome size can vary greatly between organisms and is not a valid indicator of genetic complexity, Comparison of Genome Size in Different Organisms, Variation in Genome Sizes For Different Types of Organisms. Knowles, B. et al. J. vConTACT: an iVirus tool to classify double-stranded DNA viruses that infect archaea and bacteria. Nature 345, 3641 (1990). Homo Sapiens 3.3 billion b.p. Marine viruses major players in the global ecosystem. Proc. EMBO J. Nat. Their dsDNAs are linear, cyclically permuted, and terminally redundant. These are (by definition) not found in all members of a group of related phages, and often only one example of a particular gene of this sort is present in known phage genomes. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. Pietil, M. K. et al. Veterinary Research Pedulla ML, Ford ME, Houtz JM, Karthikeyan T, Wadsworth C, Lewis JA, Jacobs-Sera D, Falbo J, Gross J, Pannunzio NR, et al. 89, 81078110 (2015). Comparative genomic analysis of 18. Proc. The largest bacteriophage genomes reach a size of 735 kb. Natl Acad. Hatfull GF, Jacobs-Sera D, Lawrence JG, Pope WH, Russell DA, Ko CC, Weber RJ, Patel MC, Germane KL, Edgar RH, et al. At the time of writing the total number of unique sequenced bacteriophage genomes is about 750. See Chronology, 1949, Hershey and Rotman; 1961, Rubinstein, Thomas, and Hershey; Genome Sizes and Gene Numbers; bacteriophages, cyclically permuted sequences, rII, triplet code T4 RNA ligase, T7 RNA polymerase, virus. Sci. Rather we suggest that non-homologous recombination occurs rampantly and indiscriminately across the genomes and stringent natural selection for the successful arrangement of the core genes counterselects any gene arrangement that disrupts that, while allowing much more promiscuous reassortments of the non-core genes; a thoroughly Darwinian view of phage evolution. Microbiol. USA 110, 1245012455 (2013). 3.2 A.2 Comparison of genome size in T2 phage, Escherichia coli, Drosophila melanogaster, Homo sapiens and Paris japonica. Rev. A high-throughput method to link a virus to its host, consisting of labelling viruses with a fluorescent dye, collecting infected cells by flowcytometry and sequencing the viral DNA. Proc. Ecogenomics and potential biogeochemical impacts of globally abundant ocean viruses. The first phages that were studied in detail included seven that commonly infect E. coli. Kristensen DM, Mushegian AR, Dolja VV, Koonin EV. 8, 19 (2017). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles Hershey, A. D. The phage-related chromosomal islands of Gram-positive bacteria. J. Mol. This pervasive mosaicism and the multiple phylogenies of different genomic segments renders it difficult to impose whole genome phylogenetic relationships and reticulate approaches are likely to be more informative [25,26]. A replication strategy where a phage takes control of the host cell to replicate its genetic material, produce its structural components, self-assemble to form new virions and burst (lyses) the cell to release newviral particles. & Schmid, M. F. Structural similarities in DNA packaging and delivery apparatuses in herpesvirus and dsDNA bacteriophages. & Leplae, R. Reticulate representation of evolutionary and functional relationships between phage genomes. Eur. Valegard, K., Liljas, L., Fridborg, K. & Unge, T. The three-dimensional structure of the bacterial virus MS2. As with the head genes discussed above, this more extensive case of genetic linkage can be understood in terms of the interactions of the encoded proteins: T4s DNA replication proteins form a complex, the nucleotide metabolism genes probably form a complex that feeds precursors into the DNA replication machine. Asymmetric cryo-EM reconstruction of phage MS2 reveals genome structure in situ. Mavrich, T. N. & Hatfull, G. F. Bacteriophage evolution differs by host, lifestyle and genome. The DNA of the phage is injected into E. coli cells. The site is secure. Nucleic Acids Res. It is notable that the GC% content of the large collection of mycobacteriophages varies between 55% and 70%, which is consistent with this consideration [20]. Metagenomic analyses of an uncultured viral community from human feces. Mol. Bacteriophages 5500 Phages examined in the electron microscope. Comparison of genome size of T2 phage, Genome size can vary greatly between organisms and is not a valid indicator of genetic complexity, The largest known genome is possessed by the canopy plant, The smallest known genome is possessed by the bacterium, Viruses and bacteria tend to have very small genomes, Prokaryotes typically have smaller genomes than eukaryotes, Sizes of plant genomes can vary dramatically due to the capacity for plant species to self-fertilise and become polyploid. Opin. This selection for genome size plays an important role in bacteriophage evolution, providing a mechanism for DNA gain and loss that is independent of gene function. The phage is covered by a protective protein coat. PubMed In the T7 phage DNA replication involves a concatenation (q.v.) Uncovering Earths virome. [Genome size is the total length of DNA in an organism. WebIn T2 genes 39 and 60 are fused into one gene (605 amino acids), and it is equivalent to gyrB ( Huang, 1990). . 5, 105110 (2014). & Myers, R. J. Hatfull GF, Pedulla ML, Jacobs-Sera D, Cichon PM, Foley A, Ford ME, Gonda RM, Houtz JM, Hryckowian AJ, Kelchner VA, et al. Nature 536, 425430 (2016). Minot, S. et al. Lavelle, K. et al. Microbiol. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single entry from a reference work in OR for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes 2, 16010 (2016). Candidate receptors fadL ::Tn ( A = 2.60) and ompF ::Tn ( A = 2.53) were identified ( Fig. 395, 754768 (2010). The number of individual phages isolated is substantial [>5,000; [4]], but the complete genome sequences of only about 750 of these have been determined. 9, 19 (2013). Kupczok, A. et al. Twelve previously unknown phage genera are ubiquitous in global oceans. The T2 39 gene, along with the 52 gene, encode the smallest topo II. 91, 113 (2017). WebThe phage T2 screen (Fig. ICTV virus taxonomy profile: Plasmaviridae. A notable advantage of this genome-by-genome approach, however, is that individual phages with sequenced genomes become available for further genetic, biochemical and structural dissection. Although most known phages harbour genomes that are shorter than 200 kb packaged into capsids with a diameter under 100 , more and more extremely large phages are being discovered. It is therefore not surprising that phages sometimes encode their own restriction systems, toxin-antitoxin systems, and immunity systems stolen from other bacteriophages [20]. PubMed Nilsson, A. S. & Haggrd-Ljungquist, E. Detection of homologous recombination among bacteriophage P2 relatives. Marston, M. F. & Martiny, J. The description of core and non-core genes given here implies that the non-core genes are moving in and out of the phage genomes on a much faster time scale than the core genes. From: Gene-Environment Interactions in Psychiatry, 2016 View all Topics Download as PDF About this page DNA Topoisomerases: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology These include Gene Transfer Agents [12], pathogenicity islands [13], encapsuins [14] and large bacteriocins [15], among others. Microbiol. Cell 16, 673685 (2004). Appl. Web1 Introduction. Microbiol. Ecol. Biol. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. 13, 232236 (2019). In most cases the functions of the non-core genes are unknown, and in some well-studied phages like coliphage , they have been deleted without adverse effect on phage growth under laboratory conditions. Analysis of Spounaviruses as a case study for the overdue reclassification of tailed phages. PLoS One 8, 112 (2013). The Pacific Ocean virome (POV): a marine viral metagenomic dataset and associated protein clusters for quantitative viral ecology. Microbiol. With a sufficiently large collection of diverse genome sequences, homologues can be identified that are present in otherwise far-distantly related phages and establish their phylogenetic relationships [24]. 299, 2751 (2000). sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal WebThe phage T2 screen (Fig. Natl Acad. WebLength of the filamentous phage is determined by size of the DNA in the genome Inserts of up 42 Kb have been introduced into M13 genome and packaged (7x genome size) ~8 copies of the Gene III protein are attached at the end of the extruded genome Pasteurella phage F108 [19]] for the Podoviridae, Siphoviridae, and Myoviridae respectively, but there are broad size ranges among these. Modular structure of the receptor binding proteins of Lactococcus lactis phages. 20 January 2023, Receive 12 print issues and online access, Get just this article for as long as you need it, Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout. Sutter M, Boehringer D, Gutmann S, Gunther S, Prangishvili D, Loessner MJ, Stetter KO, Weber-Ban E, Ban N. Structural basis of enzyme encapsulation into a bacterial nanocompartment. Sinclair, R., Ravantti, J. [Genome size is the total length of DNA in an organism. This study shows the evolutionary relationships that can exist among diverse groups of phage proteins. Open Access articles citing this article. Martinez-Hernandez, F. et al. Rev. Predicted genes are shown as boxes, with gene numbers in the boxes and the sequence phamilies [24] above, with the number of phamily members shown in brackets; phamilies correspond to groups of related genes [24]. New phages are assembled within the cell until the cellular membrane lyses (splits open). PLoS Biol. Genomic analysis of uncultured marine viral communities. WebLength of the filamentous phage is determined by size of the DNA in the genome Inserts of up 42 Kb have been introduced into M13 genome and packaged (7x genome size) ~8 copies of the Gene III protein are attached at the end of the extruded genome Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. Biol. the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Evidence for the exchange of segments between genomes during the evolution of lambdoid bacteriophages. Nat. Article 188, 24002410 (2006). Rising to the challenge: accelerated pace of discovery transforms marine virology. Leplae R, Lima-Mendez G, Toussaint A. ACLAME: a CLAssification of Mobile genetic Elements, update 2010. Bacteriophages occupy a unique position in biology, representing an absolute majority of all organisms in the biosphere. Microbiol. This is seen most strikingly in the head gene regions of most phages, where there is little or no evidence of horizontal swapping of genes within this group of genes, even though other parts of the genome may be flamboyantly mosaic. Early life dynamics of the human gut virome and bacterial microbiome in infants. The observation that different regions (genes and gene blocks) of the phage genomes have distinct evolutionary histories, owing to horizontal gene transfer events. The crystal structure of bacteriophage HK97 gp6: defining a large family of headtail connector proteins. Enterobacteria Phage T2 Effect of phage vB_EcoM_FJ1 on the reduction of ETEC O9:H9 infection in a neonatal pig cell line, Rhizosphere phage communities drive soil suppressiveness to bacterial wilt disease, Genomic diversity and ecological distribution of marine Pseudoalteromonas phages, Abundant and cosmopolitan lineage of cyanopodoviruses lacking a DNA polymerase gene, Unexplored diversity and ecological functions of transposable phages, Characterization and genome analysis of a novel phage Kayfunavirus TM1. Willner D, Thurber RV, Rohwer F. Metagenomic signatures of 86 microbial and viral metagenomes. Structure of the bacteriophage 6 nucleocapsid suggests a mechanism for sequential RNA packaging. An intriguing possibility, whether they are providing a selective benefit or not, is that these genes could serve as a gene nursery, where novel genetic functions could be built by recombination and mutation among genetic sequences that have no essential role in phage survival. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. 2, 19 (2017). Proc. Roux, S., Hallam, S. J., Woyke, T. & Sullivan, M. B. Kim, M.-S. & Bae, J.-W. Lysogeny is prevalent and widely distributed in the murine gut microbiota. USA 116, 5493 (2019). The tendency for genes whose proteins function together to stay together reaches an extreme in the group of phages related to coliphage T4. Escherichia Coli 5 million b.p. 184, 48914905 (2002). Cell 31, 749761 (2008). PubMed Bacteriophages genomes arguably also harbor the greatest genetic novelty in the biological world, in that most of their encoded genes (perhaps as much as 80%) are unrelated to known proteins, and are of unknown function. Google Scholar. 501, 127140 (2009). 13, 8589 (2006). Rates of mutation and recombination in Siphoviridae phage genome evolution over three decades. T2, T4, and T6 phages differ in the cell wall receptors to which they bind. Mol. Re-examination of the relationship between marine virus and microbial cell abundances. 8600 Rockville Pike Healthy human gut phageome. Newly acquired DNA thus provides a reservoir of genetic information for potential future use, rather than being selected for immediate utility. Moreover, viral ecologists calculate that there are about 1023 phage infections per second on a global scale, indicating that the population is not only large and old but also highly dynamic [3]. J. Biol. Microbial ecology provides a framework for considering this, in that constant infection of bacteria by bacteriophages provides a strong selection for phage resistance, coupled with the necessity to evolve phage variants that overcome resistance. T2 phage Genome Size & Chiu, W. Common ancestry of herpesviruses and tailed DNA bacteriophages. Natl Acad. A., Dishaw, L. J. We do not suppose that this means recombination occurs more frequently in certain areas of the genome. Sci. USA 107, 1438414389 (2010). Nat. WebPhage genomes can consist of either DNA or RNA, and can contain as few as four genes or as many as several hundred. T2 phage Fierer, N. et al. WebThe T-even viruses (T2, T4, and T6) have heads 80 110 nm, while the T-odd phages (T1, T3, T5, and T7) have isometric heads about 60 nm in diameter. A suggested new bacteriophage genus: Viunalikevirus. Diemer, G. S. & Stedman, K. M. A novel virus genome discovered in an extreme environment suggests recombination between unrelated groups of RNA and DNA viruses. The largest known genome is possessed by the canopy plant Paris japonica 150 billion base pairs. Nigro, O. D. et al. Furthermore, the recombinant phage bacterial lytic Structure of an archaeal virus capsid protein reveals a common ancestry to eukaryotic and bacterial viruses. WebEnterobacteria Phage T2 As the T2 bacteriophage consists of only two components, they selectively labelled the DNA with radioactive 32P, and (in a separate batch) the proteins with 35S. 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) was first described in 1952 when it was found in the genomes of T-even bacteriophages (T2 and T4). Perhaps the most striking feature emerging from phage genome comparative analyses is that they are pervasively mosaic with different segments having distinct evolutionary histories [23]. Phage genomes are mosaic, but not all genes in a given genome participate in mosaicism to the same degree. The phage can attach to the surface of a bacterium using the proteins on its 'feet' (tail fibers), and inject its genetic material (either DNA or RNA). T2 phage had very high genomic sequence similarity to SV76 (99.99% identity), so we performed host range analysis of T2 with the same bacteria strains to see whether the genomic similarity translated to host range phenotypic similarity. Extreme dimensions how big (or small) can tailed Single-cell genomics uncover Pelagibacter as the putative host of the extremely abundant uncultured 37-F6 viral population in the ocean. It is a virulent bacteriophage which infects Escherichia coli bacteria. Homo Sapiens 3.3 billion b.p. Ackermann, H. W. Phage classification and characterization. . Careers, Unable to load your collection due to an error. Phage Evol. Virology 479480, 487497 (2015). Nat. WebEnterobacteria phage T2 is a virus that infects and kills E. coli. Casjens S. Prophages and bacterial genomics: what have we learned so far? Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) was first described in 1952 when it was found in the genomes of T-even bacteriophages (T2 and T4). Xu, J., Dayan, N., Goldbourt, A. The T2 39 gene, along with the 52 gene, encode the smallest topo II. Phage genome size varies enormously, ranging from the ~3,300 nucleotide ssRNA viruses of Escherichia coli[16] to the almost 500 kbp genome of Bacillus megateriumphage G (our Legrand, P. et al. Numerous different hosts have been employed and it seems reasonable that phages exist for the vast majority of bacterial species that can be propagated in the lab. Bacteriophage T5 tail tube structure suggests a trigger mechanism for Siphoviridae DNA ejection. Lubbers MW, Waterfield NR, Beresford TP, Le Page RW, Jarvis AW. Khan Academy In a few cases, enzymatic or even biological functions have been found for non-core genes, and some of these appear to provide small, non-essential benefits to phage growth or to be essential only in certain hosts or environments [37]. Genome mosaicism can also be observed by comparing genes at the amino acid sequence level, identifying genes of common ancestry that diverged sufficiently long ago that nucleotide sequence similarity is no longer recognizable (Fig. An official website of the United States government. The authors declare no competing interests. A Dictionary of Genetics , Subjects: Nature 537, 689693 (2016). Paris Japonica 150 billion b.p. 32, 717726 (1979). Biol. This work is supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Program and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (team grant on Intestinal Microbiomics, Institute of Nutrition, Metabolism and Diabetes). Microbiol. A major lineage of non-tailed dsDNA viruses as unrecognized killers of marine bacteria. Structure 21, 13841395 (2013). WebIn T2 genes 39 and 60 are fused into one gene (605 amino acids), and it is equivalent to gyrB ( Huang, 1990). Pope WH, Jacobs-Sera D, Russell DA, Peebles CL, Al-Atrache Z, Alcoser TA, Alexander LM, Alfano MB, Alford ST, Amy NE, et al. Receptor-binding protein of Lactococcus lactis phages: identification and characterization of the saccharide receptor-binding site. Sci. Curr. Nucleotide sequence comparison of bacteriophage genomes reveals them to be enormously diverse [1]. Commun. 13, 1927 (1997). Overall, phage genomes represent only about 15% of all viruses with known unique sequences and are thus vastly under-represented in the genome databases. . Bacteriophage Lpez-Prez, M., Haro-Moreno, J. M., Gonzalez-Serrano, R., Parras-Molt, M. & Rodriguez-Valera, F. Genome diversity of marine phages recovered from Mediterranean metagenomes: size matters. T2 phage had very high genomic sequence similarity to SV76 (99.99% identity), so we performed host range analysis of T2 with the same bacteria strains to see whether the genomic similarity translated to host range phenotypic similarity. Dpartement de biochimie, de microbiologie et de bio-informatique, Facult des sciences et de gnie, Universit Laval, Qubec City, Qubec, Canada, Mora B. Dion,Frank Oechslin&Sylvain Moineau, Groupe de recherche en cologie buccale, Facult de mdecine dentaire, Universit Laval, Qubec City, Qubec, Canada, Flix dHrelle Reference Center for Bacterial Viruses, Universit Laval, Qubec City, Qubec, Canada, You can also search for this author in Breitbart, M., Bonnain, C., Malki, K. & Sawaya, N. A. Phage puppet masters of the marine microbial realm. Novick RP, Christie GE, Penades JR. Lactococcal bacteriophage p2 receptor-binding protein structure suggests a common ancestor gene with bacterial and mammalian viruses. F.O. Hendrix, R. W., Smith, M. C. M., Burns, R. N., Ford, M. E. & Hatfull, G. F. Evolutionary relationships among diverse bacteriophages and prophages: all the worlds a phage. Nat. Curr. CAS Nature Reviews Microbiology Environmental drivers of viral community composition in Antarctic soils identified by viromics. It is in the genus Tequatrovirus, and the family Myoviridae. Viruses in the oceanic basement. Evol. 3, 754766 (2018). Genome Size 37, 632639 (2019). mBio 7, e01781e01815 (2016). De Paepe, M. et al. is a recipient of graduate scholarships from the Fonds de Recherche du Qubec Nature et Technologies (FRQNT) as well as Sentinelle Nord, and is a recipient of the Goran-Enhorning Graduate Student Research Award from the Canadian Allergy, Asthma and Immunology Foundation. The host range of the recombinant phages was identical to that of IP008. This process is known as the Lytic cycle. Because their genomes are relatively small, elucidating the genetic diversity of the phage population, deciphering their origins, and identifying the evolutionary mechanisms that shape the population would seem readily feasible. Non-core genes are found in all tailed phage genomes where there is enough information to define the core genes; they are often in small clusters of genes, with the clusters interspersed among the clusters of core genes. and transmitted securely. Lim, E. S. et al. A third approach is mining prophage and phage-related sequences embedded in sequenced bacterial genomes. Arch. Environ. ISME J. Curr Opin Virol. 83, 116 (2017). Juhala, R. J. et al. Devoto, A. E. et al. Bacteriophage Manrique, P. et al. Patterns and ecological drivers of ocean viral communities. Virol. Lima-Mendez, G., Helden, J. Suttle CA. Curr. & Moineau, S. Abortive infection mechanisms and prophage sequences significantly influence the genetic makeup of emerging lytic lactococcal phages. 4, 18951906 (2019). Article Genes are drawn and annotated as in Figure 1; those that have no homologues among the collection of mycobacteriophage genomes are shown as white boxes. This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution. Biol. Nat. 22 March 2023, Microbiome holds the Tier 1 Canada Research Chair in Bacteriophages and is a member of the PROTEO and Op+Lait FRQNT Networks. Evol. WebHowever, some DNA phages such as T4 may have large genomes with hundreds of genes; the size and shape of the capsid varies along with the size of the genome. Microbiol. Microbiol. T2 is a 'tailed phage', [1] one of a group known as the 'T4-like viruses'. However, accurately identifying prophages and phage-related objects remains a challenge especially for those bacteria for which few if any viruses have been characterized and it is not easy to predict from genome information alone which of these can generate infectious particles through prophage induction. Diversity-generating retroelements. ISSN 1740-1526 (print). Phage PubMed Central J. Virol. Article Environmental characteristics of Agulhas rings affect interocean plankton transport. Google Scholar. Hendrix, R. W. Bacteriophages: evolution of the majority. 3, 566571 (2013). Natl Acad. Genes are colored according to their phamily membership. eLife 4, e06416 (2015). http://www.phage.ulaval.ca. Dutilh, B. E. et al. Rixon, F. J. 154, 231236 (2003). These prokaryotic phage proteins share significant homology with the bacterial gyrase and the ParE and ParC proteins. Grose, J. H. & Casjens, S. R. Understanding the enormous diversity of bacteriophages: the tailed phages that infect the bacterial family Enterobacteriaceae. Hendrix RW, Lawrence JG, Hatfull GF, Casjens S. The origins and ongoing evolution of viruses. 4, 693700 (2019). It is a virulent bacteriophage which infects Escherichia coli bacteria. Nucleotide sequence of coliphage HK620 and the evolution of lambdoid phages. Payet, J. P. & Suttle, C. A. Sylvain Moineau. Here a majority of the so-called core genesthe genes that are shared by all members of the groupfail to engage in horizontal exchange relative to the other genes in the group [32,33]. 29, 644651 (2001). Adriaenssens, E. M. et al. Lima-Mendez G, Van Helden J, Toussaint A, Leplae R. Reticulate representation of evolutionary and functional relationships between phage genomes. In the phage genomes, 5hmC is further glycosylated to 5ghmC and provides protection against cleavage by bacterial restriction endonucleases [1]. PubMed Iranzo, J., Krupovic, M. & Koonin, E. V. The double-stranded DNA virosphere as a modular hierarchical network of gene sharing. Popul. Capsids and genomes of jumbo-sized bacteriophages reveal the evolutionary reach of the HK97 fold. The phage is covered by a protective protein coat. Furthermore, phage-encoded homologous recombinases have properties that are well-suited to facilitating this process [31]. The smallest known genome is possessed by the bacterium Carsonella ruddi 160,000 base pairs. Temperate phages acquire DNA from defective prophages by relaxed homologous recombination: the role of Rad52-like recombinases.

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