main features of bhakti movement

Henceforth, importance was given to devotion and love for God who is the God of all-God of both Hindus as well as Muslims. Thus in a general sense Bhakti means devotion to God. The Bhakti movement was a tendency in Hinduism during medieval periods, notably from the late 7th century to the 17th century. Content Guidelines 2. 6. The method of worship and belief in God took a new turn during the movement. Some of the main principles of Bhakti Movement are given below God is one All men are equal Give up caste practices Devotion is more important than rituals. The main features of the Bhakti movement include-. 4. [74] Brajavali is to an extent, a combination of medieval Maithili and Assamese. It was a complete surrender of oneself to God. [48][49], Like the Alvars, the Saiva Nayanar poets were influential. sent through you? Bhakti, intense love and devotion, the only way to salvation. Wendy Doniger is the Mircea Eliade Distinguished Service Professor of the History of Religions in the Divinity School at the University of Chicago. God could only be found by love, dedication, and complete submission to his will, not via ceremonies, procedures, and idol worship. Answer: The Bhakti movement was primarily dominated by the significant contributions of Guru Nanak, Kabir and Ramananda. The reasons for the birth and growth of this movement are therefore not far to seek. Unity of God or one God though known by different names. Main features of the bhakti movement In terms of acquiring an answer to the question of what were the main features of bhakti , some significant factors need to be noted. The Bhakti movement was a huge religious development in the history of medieval India. With such long-lasting impacts, the religious depression of the medieval society was set aside. Self-Surrender. The Bhagavata Purana's references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on bhakti, have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that bhakti movement had parallel developments in other parts of India. Seen as a reform movement, bhakti presented a parallel to the orientalist agenda of intervention in the service of the empire. Their dedication to the deities gave rise to the term Bhakti and later turned into the Bhakti movement. 5. The Bhakti movement was fundamentally monotheistic, with adherents worshipping a single personal God who may have aform (saguna) or be formless (nirguna). a helpless target for the cool southern breeze. Over 8L learners preparing with Unacademy. Copyright 10. It started under the initiative of King Husain Shah of Jaunpur which later paved the way for the spirit of liberalism adopted by Akbar. There was an absolute need to change the existing system as well as bring radical changes in the fabric of Hindu beliefs. The Sanskrit word bhakti is derived from the root bhaj, which means "divide, share, partake, participate, to belong to". Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espn, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press. These Islamic ideas threw a powerful challenge to the existing corrupt aspect of Hinduism and the accompanying social evils. just like his Deva, so for his Guru (teacher), Thus Bhakti was superior to Gnana or knowledge and Karma, or Action. 2. Local colour, also known as regional literature, is fiction and poetry which emphasises characters, dialects, customs, landscape, and other characteristics that seem to be unique to a given area. Repeating the actual name. No other formalities like ceremonies or rituals were required to worship God. Sufism found adherents among both Muslims and Hindus. The Bhakti movement aimed at the purification of Hindu religion and liberation of the people from the monopoly and injustices of the priestly classes. In Orissa, a new trend was started in Oriya literature due to the Bhakti movement and medieval Vaishnavism of Shri Chaitanya. Thus, the general public was greatly influenced by the reforms of these Bhakti cults. Bhakti, intense love and devotion, the only way to salvation. Further, the movement was carried forward by twelve Alwar saints and sixty three Nayanar saints of the South. Download our apps to start learning, Call us and we will answer all your questions about learning on Unacademy. They were the propounders of Bhakti movement who made Bhakti their principal theme and gave a call to the people to worship in the simplest possible way of devotion and love. Later on, the movement took a new direction by evolving the devotion to God, i.e., Lord Krishna. The Bhakti saints were social reformers also. In Bengal the love of God was considered analogous to the sentiments involved in human relationships, such as those felt by a servant toward his master, a friend toward a friend, a parent toward a child, a child toward a parent, and a woman toward her beloved. 7. Chaitanya took part in the Bhakti revolution in the early 15th century and led the foundation of Achintya Bheda Abheda. The Bhakti religion rejected rituals and sacrifices as means of worship, instead emphasising purity of heart and mind, humanism, and devotion as the simplest path to Gods realisation. [98] Practices emerged bringing new forms of spiritual leadership and social cohesion among the medieval Hindus, such as community singing, chanting together of deity names, festivals, pilgrimages, rituals relating to Saivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism. For example. The Sufi saints of the Muslims also emphasized devotion to Allah (God). The movement encouraged religious toleration. Rejection of idol worship by many saints. Bhakti movement swept over India in the east and north since the 15th century. What were the main features of Bhakti movement? To him who is high-minded, They claimed that God is omnipresent and lives within mans heart. Unacademy is Indias largest online learning platform. The teachings acted as a healing balm to the suppressed classes. Bhakti or devotion for the Almighty was the central theme of this movement. The term Bhakti refers to a single-minded devotion to one God. [2] Originating in Tamilakam during 6th century CE,[3][4][5][6] it gained prominence through the poems and teachings of the Vaishnava Alvars and Shaiva Nayanars before spreading northwards. They stressed that a true religious man is one who is pure in thought and action. This aspect of tenacity and sheer devotion turned many minds to breaking peoples superstitious beliefs about the lower-caste category. Impact of the Bhakti Movement on the Medieval Indian Society: With a view to understand the impact of the Bhakti movement, we have to consider the background under which the movement gained momentum. [50], Some scholars state that the Bhakti movement's rapid spread in India in the 2nd millennium was in part a response to the arrival of Islam[51] and subsequent Islamic rule in India and Hindu-Muslim conflicts. The poem mentions their long association, bonding, anger, and disappointment. Some people would call it a reform of Hinduism that up until that point focused on the somewhat arcane rituals of the Vedas. The term Bhakti means devotion, which proposed the following, The Bhakti saints derive Bhakti, devotion and love to be the only way to attain salvation, An objection to blind faith, ceremonies, norms and rituals, The objection of worshipping idols by the exponents, An open conversation and thoughtfulness in taking decisions on religious matters, No differentiation between lower and higher category castes, The movement raised the need for Guru to guide the socio-religious movement, Surrendering oneself to take the path of salvation and reach God, Promotion of religious messages by moving from one place to another through several groups, The principles and features of the Bhakti movement are interconnected. 3. They brought necessaryprinciples of the Bhakti movementthat could convince many to urge on the path of devotion, love and tenacity. Muslims from adjacent areas began to conquer northern India during the medieval period of Hinduism, during the 7th century. Through the Indo-European language connection, early orientalists believed that they were, in a sense, seeing their own ancestry in the antique texts and "antiquated" customs of Indian peoples. [84], The Bhakti movement of Hinduism saw two ways of imaging the nature of the divine (Brahman) Nirguna and Saguna. [47] They established temple sites such as Srirangam, and spread ideas about Vaishnavism. Believed in Non-violence (Ahimsa) Image Guidelines 4. Prof Srivastav remarks. [7] These poet-saints championed a wide range of philosophical positions within their society, ranging from the theistic dualism of Dvaita to the absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta. Fortunately with the foreign invaders, some Sufi Muslim saints had also come to India and settled here. The fire of desire has invaded my body Repetition of the True Name. 5. The movement aroused awakening among the Hindus and Muslims regarding the futility of ritualism and superstitions. Answer: Following are the main features of Bhakti: This was the result of people's struggle to free the religion from control of the priests. within the body the incense, the lamps, and the food-offerings, For these scholars, the inextricable connection between monotheism and reform has both theological and social significance in terms of the development of Indian culture. The major similarities and common ideas can be summarized in the following manner: 1. Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith. [7] Salvation which was previously considered attainable only by men of Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya castes, became available to everyone. During the course of time, several evil practices had crept into the Hindu society. Pechilis in her book on Bhakti movement, for example, states:[135]. No distinction of different castes, higher or low. Rejection of idol worship by many saints 7. The idea of an open mind to decide for oneself in matters of religion may be discovered in the lines, you do as thou choosest (XVIII 63). The impact of the Bhakti movement in India was similar to that of the Protestant Reformation of Christianity in Europe. The former's adherents, known as Vaishnavas, were further classified into Krishna - both avatars of Vishnu - as their personal God. To them, rituals and sacrifices were meaningless. Many of those poems continue to be recited and sung, often at all-night celebrations. The Bhakti Yoga of Shrimad Bhagavad Gita is more descriptive on this point. Content Guidelines 2. Surdas used Brij dialect. The Bhakti Movement is characterized by the following characteristics: unity of God or one God, despite the fact that he is recognized by several names. According to the Bhagavadgita, a Hindu religious text, the path of bhakti, or bhakti-marga, is superior to the two other religious approaches, the path of knowledge (jnana) and the path of ritual and good works (karma). 2. [128][129] Arti and devotional prayer ceremonies are also found in Ravidassia sect, previously part of Sikhism. Bhakti to God was accepted as salvation. The saints of the Bhakti movement rejected the difference of caste and Uati. They tried to remove the evils of Hindu society and gave it new energy and life. Sikander Lodi was succeeded on the throne in 1489. [17][18], The meaning of the term Bhakti is analogous to but different from Kama. The Bhakti saints tried to generate an environment of good will between the Hindus and the Muslims. Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith. Supreme Wisdom, which can be taken as basically non-theistic and as an independent wisdom tradition (not dependent on the Vedas), appears fused with the highest level of bhakti and with the highest level of God-realization. The feeling of appreciation of the difference between the thought and practices of the two religions emerged. The spirit of synthesis manifested itself in the teachings of the preachers. [47] Early Tamil-Siva bhakti poets influenced Hindu texts that came to be revered all over India. Her research and teaching interests revolve around two Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. The different sections of Indian society also followed their paths between the 12th and 18th centuries. The spirit of tolerance, harmony and mutual respect which was inaugurated by the Bhakti saints had another everlasting impact the emergence of a new cult of worship by both Hindus and Muslims. It gave a new dimension, a sense of harmony and a spirit of liberalism to religious belief of the people. In the 16th century Tulsidass Hindi retelling of the Rama legend in the Ramcharitmanas (Sacred Lake of the Acts of Rama) focused on the sentiment of friendship and loyalty. Within the body is the god, the temple, Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith. [90] Some scholars disagree that the Bhakti movement was premised on such social inequalities. A true guru was the main source to attain God. 2. In the ancient period Hinduism had to face challenges from new religions like Buddhism and Jainism. The devotees worship is intended to obtain Gods favour for salvation. The principles and features of the Bhakti movement are interconnected. Learn about a brief history of Adi Shankaracharya, one of the most revered teachers in India's spiritual history. It was believed that all creations of God were equal and hence, all men should be treated equally. [109] Some of the bhagats whose hymns were included in the Guru Granth Sahib, were bhakti poets who taught their ideas before the birth of Guru Nanak the first of Sikh Guru. the Hindus and Muslims. Saundarya Lahari, written in Sanskrit by Adi Shankara, was translated into Tamil in the 12th century by Virai Kaviraja Pandithar, who titled the book Abhirami Paadal. Several splits had happened. It gave birth to a new sect i.e. The bhakti reformers preached the principles of monotheism (oneness of God) 2. A person was free to choose his ways and means to worship a god. They range from the 7th to 9th century, with Muslim traders settling in coastal regions of the Indian peninsula, to Muslims seeking asylum in Tamil Nadu, to raids in northwest India by, Karen Pechelis (2011), "Bhakti Traditions", in. Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith. It is a reform movement within the Islamic religion which started in Persia. [29] Grierson, as well as Carus, note that the first epilogue verse 6.21 is also notable for its use of the word Deva Prasada (, grace or gift of God), but add that Deva in the epilogue of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to "pantheistic Brahman" and the closing credit to sage Shvetashvatara in verse 6.21 can mean "gift or grace of his Soul". Gyan marga Attaining salvation through learning and understanding. Its results have deeply influenced contemporary religious and cultural trends in India. [1] It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE. The Bhakti saints derive Bhakti, devotion and love to be the only way to attain salvation. Due to this synthesising attitude Bhakti movement attained tremendous success. The term "Bhakti" means "devotion", which proposed the following features of the Bhakti movement in the early medieval period. The movement tried to reduce the growing bitterness between the two and bridge the gap. Main Features of Sufism: 1. It prescribes Gnana (knowledge), Karma (action) and Bhakti (devotion) as the three essential features to shatter the bondage of material world and to serve the Almighty God. The genesis of the Bhakti movement lies in the social evils prevalent in the-then Hindu society. But when we talk of Bhakti movement in the context of socio-religious background it has a different connotation. [87], Jeaneane Fowler states that the concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, at the root of Bhakti movement theosophy, underwent more profound development with the ideas of Vedanta school of Hinduism, particularly those of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta. They believed in a formless and shapeless God which was the Supreme power. [10][52][53] This view is contested by some scholars,[53] with Rekha Pande stating that singing ecstatic bhakti hymns in local language was a tradition in south India before Muhammad was born. The Bhagavad Gita, a post-Vedic scripture composed in 5th to 2nd century BCE,[34] introduces bhakti marga (the path of faith/devotion) as one of three ways to spiritual freedom and release, the other two being karma marga (the path of works) and jnana marga (the path of knowledge). Plagiarism Prevention 5. Eventually, many religious groups came in their support and moved from one place to another, enchanting poems and songs to devote to God. [104][105] In Sikhism, "nirguni Bhakti" is emphasised devotion to a divine without Gunas (qualities or form),[105][106][107] but it accepts both nirguni and saguni forms of the divine. 6. As a matter of fact Bhakti movement was the direct outcome of the emergence of Islam in India. One of the most important features of the Bhakti movements is the concept of God as one single entity. It also helped to harmonise the conflicting interests. The saints of Bhakti movement gave three means or margas for attaining salvation, which they referred as moksha. The status of women received more importance. The Bhakti Movement began with the Hindus response to face challenges that appeared as the Muslim religion. The evil practice of Sati received some set back. The use of the true name on a regular basis. The movement which emphasized primarily these ideas was the Bhakti movementdevotion to God. [110][111][112] Most of the 5,894 hymns in the Sikh scripture came from the Sikh gurus, and rest from the Bhagats. The Bhakti movement succeeded to a very small extent in realizing its two-fold objective i.e. Now there will be no further going and coming, Report a Violation 11. The society also suffered from polytheism, segregation, severe economic disparity due to casteism, untouchability etc. Sufism derives is inspiration from Islam. According to the Bhakti saints, individuals can realise God via devotion and personal effort. Ramanuja proclaims the love for God to attain salvation. In this respect, certain scholars could identify with the monotheism of bhakti. Solution Verified by Toppr Following are the main features of Bhakti: This was the result of people's struggle to free the religion from control of the priests and varna boundaries. "[59], The Bhakti movement witnessed a surge in Hindu literature in regional languages, particularly in the form of devotional poems and music. ADVERTISEMENTS: 4. The religion itself was monopolized by the Brahmins who themselves led a degenerated and corrupt moral life. [103], Some scholars call Sikhism a Bhakti sect of Indian traditions. Jill Mordaunt et al, Thoughtful Fundraising: Concepts, Issues, and Perspectives, Routledge. Although the preachers of the movement were from different parts of India, spoke different languages and presented different sermons there was a marked similarity in their thoughts and philosophy. [30][31] Tsuchida writes that the Upanishad syncretically combines monistic ideas in Upanishad and self-development ideas in Yoga with personification of Shiva-Rudra deity. Shankaracharya is claimed to have been a child genius who knew all the Hindu sacred books by eight. Question 3: What were the main features of Bhakti? [101] Other saints such as Dadu Dayal championed the similar social movement, a community that believed in Ahimsa (non-violence) towards all living beings, social equality, and vegetarian kitchen, as well as mutual social service concepts. Guru Nanak was also the follower and promoter of universal brotherhood. Disclaimer 8. The bhakti movement brought principles and thought change among the Indian societal sections by imposing the following features- Self-surrender of oneself in the devotion of God The objection to worshipping idols by Bhakti saints Unity in God means there is only one God with different physical forms and names Goswami Tulsi Das composed his works in Awadhi. All the prominent leaders played a significant role in the time of medieval India. He alone could show the path of light to reach the proper destination. The period witnessed the emergence of a number of saints and reformers who tried to purge Hinduism of its evils and blind practices. It also describes maintaining unity in society, which begins with worshipping God. Let us get some information and understand the trading history of India with Europe during the medieval period. bhakti, (Sanskrit: "devotion") in Hinduism, a movement emphasizing the mutual intense emotional attachment and love of a devotee toward a personal god and of the god for the devotee. Account Disable 12. Shankaracharya was the first person and scholar who introduced the Bhakti Movement in India. Adi Shankaracharya, an 8th-century Hindu religious reformer and scholar, was also instrumental in extending the Bhakti movement throughout India. Kabir Everyone knows about Sant Kabir Das and the heartwarming Dohas he has given to the world. [138] Further, states Pollock, evidence of Bhakti trends in ancient southeast Asian Hinduism in the 1st millennium CE, such as those in Cambodia and Indonesia where Vedic era is unknown, and where upper caste Tamil Hindu nobility and merchants introduced Bhakti ideas of Hinduism, suggest the roots and the nature of Bhakti movement be primarily spiritual and political quest instead of the rebellion of some form. 8. Therefore, to provide a deep study of the revolution, the write-up will discuss the role, salient. Preachings through local or regional languages and travelling from place to place for spreading the religious message. What are the effects of the Bhakti Movement? The early 15th-century Bhakti poet-Sant Pipa stated,[94]. The founder of this movement was a Keralite Brahmin named Shankaracharya who started it in the 9th century A.D. Gradually it spread to various parts of the country. This helped to bring the two communities nearer. Learn about the life of Vallabhacharya, a great saint and philosopher. The most glorious period of the Lodi Dynasty was the ruling period of Sikander Lodi. 5. image source: static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2011/11/20/1321804097807/Sufi-Muslim-dervishes-dur-004.jpg. According to Sufi saints, God is the beloved of the lover ('Mashook") i.e. Self-surrender. The exponents, including Kabir, Guru Nanak, Ramanuja, Chaitanya and Jaidev, promoted the idea of equality and unity among the different sections of society. Religions go through stages of change that are frequently influenced by the local political and social circumstances. The Hindu and as well as the Muslim saints emphasized religious simplicity. He suggested uniting the Hindus and Muslims by uniting their lords. [132] John Cort suggests that the bhakti movement in later Hinduism and Jainism may share roots in vandal and puja concepts of the Jaina tradition. This movement originated in South India in the 7 th and 10 th CE, mostly in the poems of Alvars and Nayanars. Therefore, to provide a deep study of the revolution, the write-up will discuss the role, salientfeatures and principles of the Bhakti movement. Giving up their mutual suspicion, hatred and rivalry a new bond of unity and fraternity began to emerge. It developed a humanitarian attitude. [127], Some Sikh sects outside the Punjab-region of India, such as those found in Maharashtra and Bihar, practice Aarti with lamps in a Gurdwara. Two groups of people deemed poets and saints had a significant role in propagating the Bhakti movement. [13] They suggest the Bhakti movement was a revival, reworking, and recontextualization of ancient Vedic traditions. Report a Violation 11. One should accept a genuine spiritual master (Guru), and under him or her constantly practice the activities of Bhakti yoga to achieve the highest perfection of life. [note 1][117], Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and the founder of Sikhism, was a Bhakti saint. Need of a guru for guidance advocated by some. Sufism is an old religious sect of Islam. Unity of God or one God though known by different names. The movement tried to instila sense of piety in the peoples daily lives. The movement attempted to break the bonds of caste, A spirit of harmony among many segments of society and religion was encouraged, The terrible practise of Sati suffered a setback, and the position of women was elevated, Under the influence of the Bhakti movement, several kings embraced liberal religious policies, The movement sparked an awareness among Hindus and Muslims about the futility of ritualism and superstitions, The feeling of respect for the differences between the two religions philosophies and practices evolved, The movement promoted religious tolerance, The holy book of the Sikhs, Guru Granth Sahib, which was subsequently compiled, includes messages from saints of all religions. I swear by Rama. image source: file2.answcdn.com/answ-cld/image/upload/w_760,c_fill,g_faces:center,q_60/v1400865382/aq7aucv9yoo1k2slaob0.jpg. Therefore, popular dissatisfaction against the existing social religious evils was a major catalyst behind the spread of Bhakti movement all over India for a long period of time. The Bhakti religion was a vast movement engulfed the whole Indian subcontinent for several centuries. Earlier, in the post-Vedic era, some gods and goddesses became famous among the worshippers, and since then, they started chanting the names of Shiva, Vishnu and Durga. The Muslim rule had put dread in the hearts of the Hindu masses. The three highest contributions in the Sikh scripture of non-Sikh bhagats were from Bhagat Kabir (292 hymns), Bhagat Farid (134 hymns), and Bhagat Namdev (60 hymns). During the medieval time, a new wave of cultural development emerged in the shape of the Bhakti Movement, giving rise to many cultures, rituals, philosophical and theological traditions, and ideas. As a result, sacrifices and everyday rituals had no place in the Bhakti movement, Because the Bhakti saints preached in common peoples languages, they made significant contributions to forming current Indian languages like Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, and Gujarati, The Bhakti movement was only partially successful in achieving its two-fold goal of bringing about changes in Hinduism and creating amicable relations between Hindus and Muslims, The Rama-Sita or Radha-Krishna cult was not embraced by the Turko-Afghan rulers or the Muslim population, It is also possibly exaggerated to claim that the Bhakti movement influenced Akbars broad vision. The Bhakti reformers believed in freedom from the cycle of life and death and preached that salvation could be attained only by deep devotion and faith in God. Bhakti to God was accepted as salvation MAIN FEATURES OF BHAKTI 1. Although, his lessons greatly impacted the Indian society that still enchanted Kabir Chaura Varanasi. Devotion to Shiva is associated with his frequent manifestations on earthin which he can appear as anyone, even a tribal hunter, a Dalit (formerly called an untouchable), or a Muslim. [32] Hiriyanna interprets the text to be introducing "personal theism" in the form of Shiva Bhakti, with a shift to monotheism but in the henotheistic context where the individual is encouraged to discover his own definition and sense of God.[33]. They believe that God lives in ones heart and not in any specific temple or mosque. Initially, the movement originated around Shaivites and Vaishnavites. 6. [8][9][10] Bhakti movement preached using the local languages so that the message reached the masses. 2. This was due to the ethos of tolerance espoused by Bhakti saints, In place of Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian, the Bhakti saints taught in local languages that were easily comprehended, Kabirs language, for example, was a mash-up of various ordinary languages. [141] These show Saivite, Vaishnavite and Hindu Brahmin monasteries revered Bhakti themes in China. image source: bhaktivedantamanor.co.uk/home/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/Pancha-Tattwa.jpg. The term Sufi has come from the word Safa meaning pure which implies purity of thought and action. There has never been a more broad and popular movement in our nation following the demise of Buddhism than the Bhakti movement. Vishnu-bhakti is based on Vishnus avatars (incarnations), particularly Krishna and Rama. 4. There were two broad Sufi orders: Bashara - Those who obeyed Islamic laws. Adultery and sodomy were also discouraged. [92], Sheldon Pollock writes that the Bhakti movement was neither a rebellion against Brahmins and the upper castes nor a rebellion against the Sanskrit language, because many of the prominent thinkers and earliest champions of the Bhakti movement were Brahmins and from upper castes, and because much of the early and later Bhakti poetry and literature was in Sanskrit. [100] Of community kitchen concepts, the vegetarian Guru ka Langar introduced by Nanak became a well-established institution over time, starting with northwest India, and expanding to everywhere Sikh communities are found. With the above mentioned characteristics Bhakti movement began a new chapter in the Indian society. An important factor which led to the popularity of Bhakti movement was that most of the promoters of this movement attempted to reconcile the differences between the Hindus and the Muslims by stressing that Rama and Rahim were one and the same. It is known as the cult of Satyapir. Open- mindedness about deciding religious matters.

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